Lecture 4 (September 20^th)

Topic: Interviews

Agenda:   1) discuss assignment two   2) lecture on interviews in general    3)  Presentation of a specific interviewing technique (the laddering technique) by Tina B. Jensen

 
Interviews

Using interviews in your research? Here are two questions that you need to think about:

• What status do you allocate to the data? I.e. what do you think about the relation between the interviewee’s accounts and the world(s) they describe?
• What do you think about the relation between the interviewee and the interviewer? (respondent, informant, interviewee, subject, etc.)

 
Three ways to look at interviews, corresponding to Silverman’s three types:

• Are the informationt given in interviews facts (e.g. about attitudes and behaviour)? That is, if you have designed and conducted the interview properly, and avoided problems such as bias.
  • Positivism: Quality (reliability) is more or less equal to ’non-bias’. Much use of prescheduled and standardised interviews
• Do the interviews give you accounts of authentic experiences? That is, if you have managed to engage emotionally and achieved understanding.
  • Emotionalism: Interviews of high quality have managed to acquire ’depth’.  Use of open-ended interviews
• Are the interviews data that allows you to analyze ’jointly constructed encounters of focused interaction’? Do you have your focus on how participants actively create meaning and perform during the interview.
  • Constructionism: Quality linked to reflexivity. Open-ended interviews to be reported with adequate detail.

 Not one correct category, choice depends on your purpose. Your practical concerns should guide your analytic position. Ask yourself whether interviews really help you address your research topic

(Geertz, 1973; p.9: ”What we call our data are really our own constructions of other people’s constructions of what they and their compatriots are up to”).

Types of interviews:

• Structured: more or less fixed sequence of pre-formulated questions. (Iterations (tests and feedback) during design of interview guide)
• Semi-structured: you want to cover some areas, but the sequence is not important. Adjust the wording of the questions and ask follow-up questions as you go along
• Open (non-structured): Maybe a pre-formulated starting question, but thereafter the interviewee steers.

 Ways to question:

Closed versus open questions (”Would you say this project has been a success or a failure?” versus ”How would you evaluate the project?”)
Clear and short questions, one at a time
Sequence: from the general to the specific. Ask questions on experience and behaviour before questions on feelings and opinions. (“warm-up”)
How and What-questions versus Why-questions

Probing

Eliciting response without manipulating: probing. Probes can be used in order to get more details, or to get the interviewee to elaborate more and clarify the statements (An example of a leading probe: ”So you would say that you were really satisfied?”)

 The basic probe: repeat the initial question when the interviewee seems to be wandering off the point.

 Explanatory probes to illuminate vague or incomplete statements (”What did you mean by that?” ”What makes you say that?” ”Could you tell me more about this?”)

Focused probes to obtain specific information (What sort of…? Then what happened? What seemed to lead up to that? Was this before or after..? What else happened? How would you compare this to..? )

Silent probe: when the interviewee is reluctant or slow to answer, just wait silently. Or ask:  ”Tell me more about that..”  ”What happened then?” 

Mirorring or reflecting, expressing in your own words what is said, the interviewee may then correct or add on.  (”What you seem to be saying is that …”)

Contradicting: give an opposite opinion (”Is that really so – I heard somebody say..”) 

Linking: connect the statement with a question on relevant information

Display puzzlement to have the interviewee elaborate. (”Why is that a problem?” ”I am not sure I understand, could you explain why..” 

Challenging: demand more information to prove a claim  (”Really?)

Encouraging: give compliments 

Giving ideas or suggestions (”Have you thought about …?” ”Have you tried..?”) 

Showing understanding and allowing time for elaboration. Acknowledging responses. (Nod, say ”yes” or ”uh-hmm” or repeat the answer to show attention).

Example of using probes:

Recording and transcribing:

Recording devices (tape recorder, mobile, laptop): try it out before you use it (sound quality, distance, background noise). Do also take notes in case something fails. Interference in the interview situation: subject may get wary, but most tend to forget about the recording device rather soon. Transcription takes a lot of time! (1 hour interview makes for 6-8 hours writing) Don’t be too ambitious when planning your research. Transcriptions are useful (to share with collaborators/supervisors, allows you to go back to material later with other aims, ideas).

Your own body language and engagement

Convey attention and genuine interest through tone of voice, expressions, gestures. Balance note-taking with attention. The role of dress and manners. Choice of location for interview. How do you present yourself, as ’student’ or ’researcher’? Are you asking for an ’interview’ or a ’discussion’? Convey understanding and respect, and that you record the responses rather than judge them. Allow them finish what they are saying, let them proceed in their own rate of thinking and speaking.